ART HISTORY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

ART HISTORY - Essay Example This construction is often used in bazaars in some of the Arab markets today. Pei and Parteners.The Bank of China, 1989 was constructed as beautiful architectural masterpiece with geometrical perfection of the mathematical design of each piece of glass. This was the precursor of his constructing the pyramids of the Louvre. Architecture in the commercial world has been transformed into art in itself. The design of Pei, the US Pavillon of Budminister Fuller and the beautiful buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright are just a small indication of how architechure has changed since the early 1950's. Art is to be beautiful to the eye visible at 180Â ° and promote social cohesion. Chapter 10: MORTALITY AND IMMORTALITY Man was deified and made immortal through art. 3000 BCE were the Pyramids in Egypt or the Chichen Itza in Mexico. Because of many social changes including the overcrowding of cities, graveyards became the responsibility of civil authorities. This can be seen in the Romanticism era wi th Pere LaChaise in 1804. (p265). As more controls were established less ornaments were allowed on gravestones. In some graveyards, stones were discontinued all together as in Memorial Lawn outside of Los Angeles. It is significant to bring up the Mausoleum of Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square (p 266) for the architecture of the building and for the statue outside. A similar edifice can be seen in North Korea and in Moscow. There are two photos in this section which the writer feels should go in Chapter 12. Chapter 12: SOCIAL PROTEST AND AFFIRMATION The following two photos were in the last chapter for the number of people who have died. It is important to look at the date of publication of this book and the six years that have past and the importance of social affirmation. "Modern commemorative art serves a psychological need of loss" and of closure. The AIDS Memorial Quilt is a commemorative work which promotes cohesion. Other commemorative works in Chapter 11: USA MARINE CORPS WAR ( p 297) and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, (p 1982) No other time in history have people been able to congregate in masses to mourn their losses. The most significant piece of architecture today is the computer designed Liberty Tower or 7TC. Land has been broken and it is scheduled to be finished in 2013. This site represents a corporate structure built will a shape that has never been used before which has no national or cultural significance. It will be used a memorial for the thousands who have died and who have died in war. In building one of the highest buildings in the world, it will be a social protest and a social affirmation that terrorism can be won. The context might be considered subjective to those who were not part of September 11 2001. Context therefore is depended on the person's culture. An American reading this report will not have the same perspective as someone from an Eastern

Code of Professional Ethics and Conduct Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Code of Professional Ethics and Conduct - Essay Example Each and every member of AICPA should be aware of the Interpretations, disciplinary actions and code of conduct thereby providing framework to work and provide desired results without affecting the ethical codes. This paper discusses in detail specific rules related to CPA Code of Ethics and Conduct focusing on : Section 102 – Integrity and Objectivity Section 201- Professional Competence Section 202 – Compliance with Standards Section 501 – Acts Discreditable Each section dscusses a separate cases on the expectation of code and its violation, the disciplinary action involved, prospects for AICPA to prevent breach in the above codes and personal viewpoints on disciplinary actions taken. 2. Case for Section 102 – Integrity and Objectivity (James W. Kingery of Lubbock, Texas) ... Discussion The decision taken by AICPA is apt according to the disciplinary procedures as upon misrepresentation of facts and figures of a company, it is the welfare of the end consumer. i.e. the Investor which is being questioned. The investors take their major investment decisions based on the financial statements and other details provided by the company, and this being misrepresented can lead to negative results for the investor thereby leading to huge losses or even closure of funds. Simultaneously, the same situation can arise for the company as it can lead to cooking up books and creating a bubble which can burst at any given point of time creating losses for end number of institutional and retail investors. Hence, a professional CPA appointed by the company has to comply with the standards and norms and it is his responsibility to educate the management about the consequences of misrepresentation of facts, which unfortunately Mr.Kingery failed to implement. Hence, the decisio n taken by AICPA stands to be apt for the unethical behavior of the member. Prospects for AICPA to prevent misrepresentation of facts Create database of companies who have hired CPA’s and perform second line audit activities on a regular basis to ascertain deviations by keeping the CPA framework . A post mortem review by Apex body would be advisable thereby limiting the liability of CPA and minimize the chances of fraudulent practices to arise in the organization. (Mortimer, 2003) 3. Case for Section 201- Professional Competence (Bruno A Fedele, Jenkintown, Pennsylvania) Professional Competence is the ability to perform professional services that is based on professional standards through application of knowledge and skill with proper diligence (Mele, 2005). A CPA member is

Critique of the paintings by the artist A.E. Backus Essay Example for Free

Critique of the paintings by the artist A.E. Backus Essay Albert Ernest â€Å"Beanie† Backus is a gifted painter born on January 3, 1906 in Ft. Pierce, Florida. He studied at the Parsons School of Applied Art in New York but his talent in creating wonderful works of art is considered to be only self thought. He devoted his time in creating Florida landscapes after he came from the war and his works became widely popular through his exhibitions in Miami and Palm Beach. (A. E. Backus: A brief biography, 2007) Backus is famous for his creative works that feature picturesque Florida views like sunsets, the vistas of the Everglades, and spectacular beach and river views. One of his artworks, titled the â€Å"Early Taylor Creek† was in fact a nice example in his set of landscapes. Created in memory of S. N. Baruch, this work of art shows a view of a boat resting on a side of a creek with palm trees and a house looming on its background. The outlines of the shapes and lines are not overly emphasized and are applied in light strokes creating a wispy sort of image to the view. The colors used are mostly in the hues of light green, brown, and blue giving the impression of solemnity and mildness to the artwork. The shading of the colors in the picture is applied subtly while the texture gives a rather unrealistic and semi-solid sense of touch on the surface because of the way the lines are applied in wispy strokes. (Permanent Collection, 2007) When it comes to the application of the principles of design, this work of art can undoubtedly be considered as one having a nice visual balance. The informal type is used in this work wherein unlike objects are placed on either side of the picture to create the illusion of balance. With the boat serving as the central point, Backus created equilibrium by painting a clump of trees on the right side and pairing it with the picture of the house, an expanse of grass, and a withered trunk on the left. (Principles of Design, 2007) Variety is the principle that artists use to make a certain artwork interesting by creating complex relationships in their works to make it appealing and lively. For some painters, however, the concept of variety is out of the question when they want simplicity to rule in their creations. Here in Early Taylor’s Creek, the principle of simplicity is the one used because it displays elegance despite of its plainness in subject. The boat resting on the side of the creek and the house on its background, on the other hand, shows the application of the principle of emphasis since these are the objects that stood out most on the painting. (Principles of Design, 2007) When it comes to contrast, the concept of low contrast is applied in this work since the colors used are mainly in the same hues and the shapes doesn’t give an impression of obvious difference on the whole of the artwork. Repetition is displayed here by the withering trunks on both the left and right side of the picture and it also showed good rhythm by the way Backus painted the trees and the grass swaying in the same direction to emphasize movement. Also, the principle of scale showed here are shown in correct proportions to the standard size references of the actual objects making it look realistic in nature. The spacing of the objects in the picture is done well and the motions as well as depth are also simply well-displayed. (Principles of Design, 2007) Backus has an unrequited passion for wildlife and plants and through his natural talent; he was able to produce captivating paintings of tropical flowers and other flora. One of his particular favorite as his subject is the hibiscus which is a native in Hawaii and Malaysia. One of his paintings featuring this ubiquitous flower is his work called the â€Å"Offering to the gods† which features a native mask standing amidst a background of several leaves with a red hibiscus lying on its side. (Wikipedia, 2007) Studying the elements and the principles of designs applied to it, this artwork can be well considered as the opposite of Early Taylor’s Creek. The lines and shapes used here are well defined and geometric compared to the earlier landscape giving it a solid and distinct impression. The colors used here are mostly in black and in shades of dark brown, green, and red which gave it a rather gloomy and mysterious kind of feel. The shading applied also added to the factor of the artwork’s shadowy appearance. Due to the smooth application of strokes and the defined lines, the Offering to the gods was able to attain the kind of solidity that lacked in Early Taylor’s creek. (Backusgallery. com, 2007) In examining the principles of design used here, it is noticeable that this creation didn’t use the principle of balance. All the weight is placed on the left side of the picture because of the mask and the clump of leaves behind it. Only the hibiscus flower was placed on the right but its bright red color somehow made up to its lack of size when compared to the dull colors of the objects painted on the left side. Simplicity isn’t also applied here because when you first look at the picture, you will quickly notice the stand out image of the mask looming over the startling red hibiscus lying prone on its side. (Principles of Design, 2007) When it comes to the principle of variety, what lacked in Early Taylor’s Creek was abundant here in this work. Because of this picture’s mystifying look, it possessed a certain complexity that only the aspects of variety can only give. However, emphasis is hard to distinguish in this artwork because there are only two subjects painted here and both are certainly noticeable. The native mask can be considered as the focal point of the painting because of its appearance and size but the hibiscus can also be taken in as the important subject because its bright red color stands out from the shadowy background of green, brown, and black. On the other hand, the concept of high contrast is used here because of the emphasis of the color of the hibiscus over the shades of the mask, leaves and the background. (Principles of Design, 2007) The concept of repetition is out of the topic since the two subjects here are far different from each other. The principle of scale, however, was quite noticeable in this painting because of the monumental size of the mask over the hibiscus flower. Motion is not applied since the subjects portray a fixed position and the principle of rhythm is also disregarded since it is connected to the concept of repetition. The depth possessed by the artwork is also unfathomable because of the mysterious and gloomy quality brought by its subjects. (Principles of Design, 2007) The Early Taylor’s Creek piece is more appealing to me because of its sheer simplicity and elegance. Its concept is also easy to understand and interpret compared to the dark ‘feel’ that the Offerings to the gods give. I also find that the principles of design are well applied here because the concepts of balance are applied soundly and the lack of variety makes people to easily connect with the message it communicates. Movement and rhythm are also very well handled making this painting more realistic in nature. The Offerings to the gods’ concept may be appealing because of its mystifying aura but Early Taylor’s Creek is still my choice because of the light and placid feel it displays. References: Backusgallery. com. (2007). A. E. Backus: A brief biography. (2007). Permanent Collection. (2007). Principles of Design. (2007). Wikipedia. (2007).

Animal Rights For Farm Animals Sociology Essay

Animal Rights For Farm Animals Sociology Essay The paucity of legal scholarship and teaching in the area of animals and the law is puzzling, particularly given the general interest in, and intense debate about, the treatment of animals by humans over the last 30 years. The lack of interest in Australia is ironic, as it was the work of the Australian philosopher Peter Singer, in the highly influential book Animal Liberation, which can be said to have reinvigorated much of the modern debate about the status of animals.  [1]  By contrast with the Australian uninterest, countries such as Sweden, the United Kingdom, Finland, Switzerland and the Netherlands have moved to ban the cruel practice of keeping pregnant sows in sow stalls, Australias most recent Model Pig Code provided for a minor increase in stall size and a generous 10 year phase in period for a 6 week limit on the use of sow stalls. Moreover, the deplorable practice of keeping hens in battery cages continues to be legal in all Australian jurisdictions while the EU has banned the use of all battery cages by January 2012. Further to this, the United States legal academy has been actively exploring legal issues relating to animals for a number of years. The Lewis and Clark Law School, in Portland, Oregon, has established the National Center for Animal Law and publishes an annual journal, Animal Law.  [2]  Approximately 40 law schools in the United States offer courses on animals and the law.  [3]  The legal profession in the United States has been no less active. A large number of State Bar Associations have established animal law sections or committees. Activist attorneys established the independent Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF) in 1981. The ALDF not only provides free legal advice and assistance to prosecutors in cruelty cases, but also maintains a national database of cruelty cases, and provides support for lawsuits that test the boundaries of animal law.  [4]  Certainly, Australias poor animal welfare standards in comparison are a fundamental flaw of Australian animal protection laws. Nevertheless, even if the State and Territory Governments decide to implement ambitious welfare standards, as the legislation stands, these standards would go substantially unenforced. As such, this essay attempts to explore the current legal system governing our animals and in the process it will bring to light the deficiencies that currently exist. The focus of which will be on the treatment of factory farmed animals and how Australia continues to lag behind the rest of the world in developing a legal system that effectively shuts out animal cruelty. The notion of animal law is one that is highly complex yet ironically extremely underdeveloped. This in turn has led to mass confusion about the treatment of animals by various bodies. According to voiceless, over the last 30 years, there has been a dramatic increase in our understanding of animal intelligence and behaviour and a broad acceptance that animals are sentient beings that have a right to live free of suffering. This has led to the recognition that the existing legal system has failed to provide animals with access to justice.  Ã‚  To address this failure, two streams of law have been developed that aim to use legal mechanisms to improve the lives of animals.  [5]   1. Animal welfare laws may be defined as those laws that seek to promote the interests of animals, within a legal framework that characterises them as property. In essence, animal welfare law sanctions exploitation of animals but seeks to define acceptable limits to that exploitation by prohibiting unnecessary pain and suffering.  [6]   Some examples of activities considered necessary under Australias current animal welfare laws include:  [7]   Confining millions of pigs, chickens and other farm animals in concrete and steel sheds (modern factory farms) with no access to the outdoors, little to no access to bedding material and  little to no meaningful contact with their young; Denying anaesthetic during painful procedures such as tail docking, castration and teeth clipping; and Using a range of methods from baits and traps to guns and bows and arrows (in some states) to kill millions of wild animals defined as feral or game every year. It is under this area of law that Australia is clearly lacking in its commitment to the protection of animal welfare. Ultimately, such necessary activities are permitted on the basis of efficiency and economics. This is further reinforced by Francione who argues that most animal welfare legislation is based on an understanding of animals as commodities (evidenced by the significant exemptions and qualifications typical of such laws, including the use of animals for food and for scientific research).  [8]  However, the imposition of cruelty for economic reasons alone is unjustified and essentially this needs to be reformed. For Singer, a utilitarian, the qualified protection provided by animal welfare legislation reflects a failure to give equal consideration to the interests of animals. In turn, this failure reflects speciesism an irrational, discriminatory and morally unjustifiable preference for the interests of humans over animals.  [9]   Public consideration of the issue of cruelty to animals tends to focus on the treatment of companion animals and animals used in research. Wolfson and Sullivan argue that this focus also underpins law-making and legal scholarship.  [10]  Yet, they point out, it is farmed animals that account for almost all animals killed by humans (in the order of 98 in every 100 killed).  [11]  This is once again a clear failure in the development of an effective body of law. The protection of animal welfare and rights is clearly a mirage of hope. This is primarily based on the notion that anti-cruelty legislation has been called upon because of the impact that humans are having on farmed animals, yet our legal bodies continue to ignore such blatant actions and focus on an area of law that appeases society without actually effectively addressing the issue at hand. Ultimately, as will be discussed later, this creates a false sense of security amongst humans that our governments are effectivel y targeting animal welfare rights. In the United States these animals are invisible to the law. At federal level, farmed animals are exempted from anti-cruelty legislation.  [12]  States are also increasingly incorporating customary farming exemptions. If industry participants can establish that particular treatment of a type of animal is commonplace and accepted industry practice, no criminal liability can arise based on that treatment, regardless of how cruel the treatment might actually be. The end result is a profit-driven industry, with a proven record of sustained infliction of cruelty on animals, which is largely self-regulated on issues of animal welfare.  [13]  Further to this, legislation in Australia exempts farming from cruelty offences, and although most jurisdictions have adopted codes of conduct for the treatment of farmed animals, these are not always compulsory, and are not subject to wide public scrutiny. Thus, the issue of profit making industries again go es to the core of animal welfare rights. The failure to understand animal welfare rights over economic progression will inevitably ensure that this remains a perpetual problem. Until society puts animal welfare ahead of profits then Australia will remain in a contained cyclical downfall with respect to the protection of animals. It is at this point where the implementation of animal rights law may help to aid the development of animal protection in the future. 2. Animal rights law may be defined as an area of law which seeks to question animals well-entrenched status as property, with a view to securing fundamental rights for (at least some) animals.  [14]  The quest for animal rights is not a pursuit for the same rights that humans should have. Essentially, animal rights lawyers argue that animals should not be treated by the law as mere things. This area of the law is based on the assumption that unless animals have rights, they will continue to be treated by society as resources to satisfy human wants and needs.  [15]   Thus it is the development of this area of law that is essential to the proper development of animal welfare laws. The development of these two areas ultimately complements one another with the hope of eradicating the issues that arise under the first type of legal system. That is, the protection of animals from unnecessary pain and suffering only. Singer may regard animal welfare legislation as a positive development, but would argue that to be effective such legislation needs to consider the interests of animals and humans equally. It is here where animal rights law begins to reflect such an ideological stance, and as already discussed, this is a major step in the development of an effective body of law that deals with animals and humans. Whilst the need for legal advocates is an urgent one, animal law, as already discussed is a relatively new body of law that is still in its infant stages of development. In the United States, animal law has been developing at an increasing rate over the last thirty years. However in Australia, there are still only a handful of advocates (committees, universities and organisations) actively debating these issues. A 2006 survey conducted in connection with the Federal Governments Australian Animal Welfare Strategy found that participants had a shallow understanding of animal welfare issues and that there appeared to be assumptions by the general public about animal welfare and the existence and enforcement of legislation to protect animals from mistreatment.  [16]  Thus, this clear lack of transparency and education with respect to the law inevitably inhibits the ability of animal law to grow as a serious body of law. In recent years, increased scrutiny and criticism of intensive factory farms have changed the way that animal industries market their products. No more hiding beneath a veil of secrecy hoping that issues such as sow stalls, battery cages and meat chicken growing and processing wont be discussed and debated. The social justice movement of animal protection is rapidly picking up momentum and animal industries are now, more than ever, being called upon to justify or change their practices. However despite this change in perception, it is clear that Australia is still falling behind in the protection of intensively farmed animals. This can primarily be linked backed to the argument that animals can never gain adequate protection under the law without a fundamental reappraisal of their legal status as property. For example, according to the American lawyer Gary Francione, because their interests are evaluated against this status as property, the outcome is almost certain: people win and a nimals lose.  [17]  He takes the view that, although an animal treatment by its owner may ostensibly be limited by anticruelty laws, property rights are paramount in determining the ambit of protection accorded to animals by law.  [18]  If we say that an animal is property, he declares, we mean that the animal is to be treated under the law primarily as a means to human ends, and not as an end in herself.  [19]  Thus, to expand legal protection and remedy available to factory farmed animals, a uniform and settled approach on standing must be established upon the principle that animals are not merely a means to human ends but have by virtue of themselves, basic moral rights.  [20]  Ultimately, the treatment of animals as property inhibits the ability of the law to protect their rights as it would be extremely unlikely that standing can be established. As Cassuto argues, animals lack legal protections because they are commodified property whose worth emanates from thei r market value.  [21]  In other words, systematic abuse arises is sanctioned in the discourse of property because such animals are not considered as individual, sentient beings but a mere commodity.  [22]  Granting standing to a plaintiff to sue to enforce an animal welfare statue therefore can serve to interfere in another individuals property right. The conflict of interest that arises is therefore an inherent problem within this body of law. The continuation of animals being associated as mere commodities will essentially inhibit the development of animal rights and ultimately will ensure Australia remains behind the rest of the world. The notion that factory farmed animals are mere commodities with no measurable rights is made apparent especially in our NSW legislation. The legislative framework governing the lives of animals on factory farms is indicative of the dichotomy drawn between farm animals on the one hand and companion animals or endangered species on the other. As already pointed out by Wolfson, public consideration of the issue of cruelty to animals tends to focus on the treatment of companion animals and animals used in research. This is made no more apparent than in our legislation. Firstly, NSW implemented the Companion Animals Act 1998 (NSW).  [23]  The Companion Animals Act covers the responsibilities and rights of the owners of companion animals, such as cats and dogs. The aim of the legislation is to protect the rights of animals and their owners in balance with the rights and needs of others in the community. Thus, where NSW attempts to convey to the public that it is serious about animal r ights, it appears that this is only with respect to companion animals. It is an unfortunate occurrence as it has created a sense of security amongst the public that our state is serious about animal protection, yet the truth of the matter is that we are neglecting the primary group of animals that are in need the most. In NSW, the key piece of legislation is the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 (POCTAA).  [24]  One would assume that this may provide some protection to farmed animals. However, this is clearly not the case as Peter Sankoff suggests An examination of POCTAA as a stand-alone document further supports the suggestion that the animals best protected by NSW animal welfare law are animals the community has the most immediate and intimate relationship with.  [25]  Provisions in the Act establish stringent definitions of cruelty contained in sections 4(2) and 5 in which the following is an act of cruelty whereby an animal is unreasonably, unnecessarily or unju stifiably beaten, kicked, killed, wounded, pinioned, mutilated, maimed, abused, tormented, tortured, terrified or infuriated, over-loaded, over-worked, over-driven, over-ridden or over-used, exposed to excessive heat or excessive cold, or inflicted with pain. In section 4 of the POCTA Act, animals used for the production of food and industry are defined as stock animals comprising cattle, horses, sheep, goats, deer, pigs, and poultry. By virtue of this definition they are exempt from numerous acts that would come under the definition of cruelty if these acts were committed against an animal not defined as a stock animal.  [26]  Such exemptions are facilitated by the establishment of a legal defense to an alleged cruel practice through section 24 of the POCTA Act whereby a person is not guilty of the offence if the court is satisfied that the act or omission in respect of which the proceedings are being taken was done to a stock animal in the course of various industry practices.   [27]  Such practices sustaining the defense include ear tagging or branding and all acts if an animal is less than two to six months of age depending on the species of animals. Stock animals are also exempted from section 9 of the POCTA Act which stipulates that confined animals are to be exercised. Under 34A the POCTA Act, Industry codes of Practice can be adopted as guidelines, relating to the welfare of farm animals meaning that it is the Industries themselves regulating animal welfare in factory farms. This essentially creates a clear conflict of interest because rather than establish independent bodies or legislative frameworks, removed from subjective bias such as monetary concerns it appears that the government is content with self regulation that is clearly ineffective. Further to this, an examination of the other regulatory instruments that work alongside POCTAA further support the suggestion that being a high visibility animal is legislatively beneficial. Exhibited a nimals, the highest visibility animals, are granted the full range of protections available under POCTAA, and then they have their own piece of additional legislation in the form of the Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 (NSW).  [28]  The protections available to animals in circuses, zoos, and those used in theatre and film, are strong and comprehensive. The reason EAPA was created was due to the public outcry over the poor conditions being provided for animals exhibited in some circuses and fauna parks.  [29]  This demonstrates how important visibility is to good legal protections, and essentially this highlights the chronic issue plaguing farmed animals as they are completely removed from the spotlight. Thus it is clear this is an extremely underdeveloped area of law, as Wolfson identifies, it is farmed animals that account for almost all animals killed by humans (in the order of 98 in every 100 killed).  [30]  Thus, how can Australia possibly consider itself at the forefront of animal welfare rights, when the core group of animals remains unprotected by any form of solid legislation? Essentially, Australia is still lagging behind significantly and this will be further highlighted by a comparative analysis below of the developments taking place in the United States and Europe. The underdevelopment of our legal system with respect to animals is not confined to NSW only. If one were to take an analytical view of our Victorian legislation for instance, the public would indeed see that this is a nationwide issue. Section 6(1) of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986 Victoria, and its state and territory equivalents, exclude production animals (the vast majority of animals in Australia) from the legislations protection. If production industries follow a code of practice for their particular animal, they are exempted from prosecution for cruelty, despite the fact the codes are barely enforced, or allow very cruel practices. However, as discussed above, such codes of practice are clearly a form of appeasement rather than a serious attempt at protecting our animals. As a result, millions of factory-farmed animals daily endure conditions that would be illegal if they involved a companion animal such as a cat or dog. As Katrina Sharman, corporate counsel for animal advocacy group Voiceless says: Most never see the light of day, feel the earth beneath their feet, walk freely, stretch their wings or limbs, forage for food or engage in normal socialisation.  [31]  Even the limited legislative protection that Australia offers animals is inadequately enforced. Under section 24 of the act, charges may be laid by a member of the police force, a public servant in the Department of Primary Industries, municipal council officer or RSPCA officer.  [32]  But in reality, all bodies are under-resourced, meaning most breaches of the law are not detected or investigated, let alone prosecuted, even if there is genuine will to do so.  [33]  And even if someone is convicted, penalties are woeful. Under section 10 of the act, for example, the maximum penalty for aggravated cruelty is 12 months jail. In this regard, greater deterrence through the form of a more imposing legislative framework is crucial to ensure that industries and individuals refrain from continuing such acts. Ultimately, education has been an insufficient tool to protect our animals and from an industry perspective, unless penalties become harsher, they are going to continue to practice in a way that is focused on efficiency alone and not in a way that would be in the animals interest. According to a publication issued by the Australian Chicken Meat Federation Inc: Concern for bird welfare is backed by Government and Industry Standards which ensure birds are kept comfortable and treated humanely.  [34]  Similarly, Australian Pork Limiteds website tells us that: Australian consumers can have every confidence in the animal welfare standards applied by Australian pork producers [because] our farmers all abide by the standards as set out in the Model Code.  [35]  Despite such positive sentiments, the issue at hand here is that most farm animals fall largely outside the protective reach of animal welfare legislation. They are classified in law as property or commodities as discussed above. The Codes mirror this approach, which has drastic ramifications for the way farm animals are treated. For example, the Codes permit permanent indoor confinement of female pigs, layer hens and meat chickens in circumstances which severely limit their ability to carry out their normal behaviours. They also provide for certain Management Practices or Elective Husbandry Procedures to be performed on farm animals. The Pig Code  [36]  sanctions the docking of piglets tails, while the Poultry Code  [37]  provides for layer hens to be subjected to appropriate beak trimming. These procedures are both permitted to be carried out without pain relief, notwithstanding the fact that scientific research points to the fact that they are likely to cause acute and chronic pain.  [38]  Most animals in factory farms live a life of confinement. They spend their time crammed into cages, sheds or feedlots and they never see the sun. Take, for example, the breeding pigs (sows), numbering about 300,000.  [39]  These intelligent, emotionally complex beings spend the bulk of their reproductive lives in stalls so small they cannot turn around.  [40]  The sole purpose of their existence, as determined by us, is to produce the five million pigs slaughtered every y ear to fill the mouths of our pork, ham and bacon lovers.  [41]  This industry is so fixated on profits and meeting the demands of society that from an economic perspective no other form of treatment is feasible. Thus, it is clear that the industry has taken advantage of the laxity of the legislative framework and incorporated this into its own practice codes and industry standards. Through this, it is clear that Australia desperately needs to change to ensure that it ceases to lag behind the rest of the world and become a leader at the forefront of animal welfare. As argued, Australia is clearly lagging behind in the development of animal law, and the primary area is that of factory farmed animals. Despite Australian Pork Limited Claiming that Australian pig farmers are leading the way in making positive changes in the way pigs are raised, such claims are largely a falsity. As can be seen from the discussion above, in Australia, there are State and Territory animal welfare laws that are intended to protect animals but in reality, the fundamental interests of most farm animals, including pigs, are not protected in law. As already discussed, National Model Codes of Practice apply in addition to some animal welfare laws; however, these Codes also fail to provide true protection. To make matters worse, they are often used to justify many cruel factory farming practices. The current Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals- Pigs (revised) (2006) (the Revised Code)  is no exception. Continuing on from the above discussion, some of the cru el practices it permits are: Pregnant sows may be confined for the duration of their 16 week pregnancy in individual sow stalls, measuring no more than 0.6 x 2.2m. These stalls, which have been associated with physical disorders, chronic stress and depression, are so small that female pigs cannot even turn around.  [42]   From about 2017: The maximum time for holding pregnant pigs in sow stalls will reduce to 6 weeks. This is two weeks more than the minimum standard being introduced by the European Union and New Zealand. Sow stalls are already banned  in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands and Finland. They are also banned in Florida and are being phased out in Arizona, California, Colorado, Maine, Michigan and Oregon in the United States. Two of the largest pork producers in the US and Canada also recently announced their plans to phase out sow stalls.  Ã‚  [43]   Heavily pregnant and nursing sows will be confined for up to 6 weeks of each reproductive cycle in farrowing crates, before their young are prematurely weaned. These crates, which measure 0.5 x 2.2m, are even smaller than sow stalls.  [44]   Pig producers  are not obligated to provide access to the outdoors where pigs can engage in natural behaviours such as grazing, wallowing in mud, walking around and nosing or manipulating their environment.  [45]   Painful mutilations of young piglets, including tail docking, teeth clipping and castration without pain relief, continue to be permitted.  [46]   Natural materials such as straw for sleeping and nesting, while encouraged,  are not mandatory, rendering many pigs subject to a miserable life on concrete floors.  [47]   Thus, whilst it is correct to say that the Pig Code has recently been reviewed, the upshot of that review, other than largely reinstating the existing system, was to defer phasing out sow stalls for a decade. If sow stalls are phased out in 2017 as mentioned above, then Australia will still be 14 years behind the EU which hasnt allowed new stalls to be built since 2003. Australia will also be markedly behind eight US States including, most recently, Michigan, which is scheduled to phase out sow stalls over the next decade. No Australian jurisdiction has even meaningfully debated a ban on sow stalls. Their spin on the Poultry Code appears to have overlooked the section conveniently titled hatchery management which allows approximately ten million culled or surplus hatchlings (predominately male chicks) to be disposed of by carbon dioxide gassing or quick maceration as if they are trash, which technically they are in industry terms, since they are of no economic utility.  [48]  AE CLs press release also failed to mention that conventional battery cages are scheduled to be phased out across the European Union by 2012, whereas several attempts to introduce a ban in Australia have met considerable resistance.  [49]   Further to the above, a number of European countries have taken a leadership role in the area of chicken meat

Terry Fox Essay -- essays research papers

In Canadian history there are many famous people. In my mind one really stands out among the rest. His name is Terry Fox and he is one of the greatest athlete to run on the face of this planet. Terry discovered he had cancer and then decided to run across Canada. He was a brave man who would take what the world through at him. Running across Canada was his way to show the world that he was not going out with out a fight. Terry Fox was born in Winnipeg Manitoba on July 28 1958 Terry was raised in port Coquintlam, British Columbia. He was very athletic from a young age. When he was in grade eight Terry was rated nineteen out of nineteen on his basketball team. For that first season he was on the court for approximately one minute. This did not affect Terry and did not let it get to him, fore just two years later Terry was the starring player on his team. By the time he graduated he became one of two athletes to receive the schools highest athletic award. Terry knew that aches and pains are common in athlete’s lives. At the end of his first year of university there was a new pain in his knee. One morning Terry woke up to see that he could no longer stand up. A week later Terry found out that it was not just an ache he had a malignant tumor; his leg would have to be cut off six inches above the knee. Terry’s doctor told him that he had a chance of living but the odds were fifty to seventy percent. He also said that he should be glad it happened now fore just 2 years ago the chance of living was fifteen percent. The night before his operation a former coach brought Terry a magazine featuring a man who ran a marathon after a similar operation. Terry didn’t want to do something small if he was going to do something he was going to do it big. "I am competitive" Terry said, "I’m a dreamer. I like challenges. I don’t give up. When I decided to do it, I knew it was going to be all out. There w as no in between Terry’s sixteen month follow up he saw all the young people suffering and getting weak by the disease. He never forgot what he saw and felt burdened to thoughts that died to run this marathon. He was one of the lucky one in three people to survive in the cancer clinics. Terry wrote asking for sponsorship " I could not leave knowing that these faces and feelings would still be here even though I would be set free of mine, s... ...sed in the middle of the street. "Yesterday I could run twenty three miles and now I can’t cross the street." Terry said. Terry’s mother cried as Terry spoke to the reporters "Well, you know, I had primarily cancer is in my lungs and I have to go home." His voice broke as he spoke. But he continued "and have some more x-rays or maybe an operation that will involving opening my chest or more drugs I’ll do everything I can. I’m gonna do my best. I’ll fight. I promise I wont give up." His father pleated with him to give up and take the rest of his life slowly. For ten months Terry battle with the disease left him in pain for most of the end of his life. Terry died with his family beside him on June 28, 1981 one month before his twenty third birthday. Terry Fox in my opinion was a true Canadian hero He went to his limit to fulfill the dreams of all his friends that he made in the cancer clinics. He gave his life to those people and died for them. Terry is not a person that anybody will forget. He is and amazing person and a good role model for anybody to look up to. He has proven that he can take anything the world throws at him.

Business :: essays research papers

Businessman. Before World War I, Truman had lost money in mining and oil investments. In 1919, he and his friend Eddie Jacobson invested their savings in a men's clothing store in Kansas City. They worked hard, keeping the store open from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m., but the business failed during the severe recession that began in 1921. Truman worked about 15 years to pay the store debts. Political career Discouraged by the failure of the store, Truman decided to seek a career in politics. He received help from "Big Tom" Pendergast, the Democratic Party boss of Kansas City. Pendergast's nephew had known and admired Truman in the Army. Pendergast led one of the strongest political machines in the United States. He decided that Truman could win votes because of his farm background, his war record, and his friendly personality. County judge. Pendergast supported Truman in his campaign for election as county judge of Jackson County. This post in Missouri resembled that of county commissioner in other states. Truman won the election, and served from 1922 to 1924. He lost the 1924 election because of a split in local Democratic forces. Truman attended the Kansas City School of Law during the mid-1920's, but did not obtain a degree. He served as presiding county judge from 1926 to 1934. The Pendergast machine was notoriously dishonest, but Truman won a reputation for honesty and efficiency. He supervised new projects financed by $14 million in tax funds and bond issues. U.S. senator. In 1934, again with Pendergast's support, Truman was elected to the United States Senate. As a member of the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee, Truman directed an investigation of railroad finances. His staff found damaging evidence about many of Truman's friends in Missouri, but he ordered the investigation completed. A major result was the Transportation Act of 1940, which regulated railroad financing. Also during this time, a government study of the Pendergast political machine disclosed vote frauds and shady financial dealings. Pendergast pleaded guilty to income tax evasion, and he and many of his followers were sent to prison. The scandals did not touch Truman, but he refused to disclaim Pendergast. In 1940, Truman won reelection to the Senate. The Truman Committee. In 1940, although the United States was not formally involved in World War II, the nation's defense spending rose to huge sums. Truman realized that the defense effort created many opportunities for waste and corruption.

Parkinsons Disease

PD normally affects people over the age of 50. It becomes more common with increasing age. ‘About 5 in 1,000 people in their 60s and about 40 in 1,000 people in their 80s have PD'1. It affects both men and women but is a little more common in men. PD is not usually inherited, and can affect anyone. However, genetic factors may be important in the small number of people who develop the disease before the age of 50. PD therefore affects a lot of people in the UK and I have chosen this topic so I have a greater understanding of what they go through and how we can help those affected. Background: Biology of Parkinson's disease? Parkinson's disease is a chronic disorder of part of the brain called the substantia nigra. It mainly affects the way the brain co-ordinates the movements of the muscles in various parts of the body. This area of the brain sends messages down nerves in the spinal cord to help control the muscles of the body. Messages are passed between brain cells, nerves and muscles by chemicals called neurotransmitters. Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter that is made by the brain cells in the substantia nigra1.Muscular System: Muscle Metabolism In PD, cells in the substantia nigra are damaged and die. The cause is unknown. Over time, more and more cells become damaged and die. The more cells that are damaged the less dopamine is produced. The reduction of cells and the low level of dopamine in the cells in this part of the brain causes nerve messages to the muscles to become slowed and abnormal1. In the long term PD will ultimately lead to death. Causes We are still unsure of the causes of PD but here are the most likely and most talked about suggestions: 1. The hereditary form of PD occurs in fifteen per cent of cases2. The genes affected help clear nerve cells of excess proteins. Scientists are not sure but it is thought that when the ‘production process for protein manufacture breaks down, little clumps of ill-formed proteins begin to accumulate in cell' 17, causing cell death. Tests carried out on rats using rotenone imply that pesticides and toxins may lead to PD. The rats experienced shaking and a loss of muscle control as well as developing Lewy bodies (spherical lumps found in dying brain cells), which are commonly associated with Parkinson's disease. However, researchers are yet to find evidence for any definitive link to a particular toxin or drug in humans. 2. There seems to be a link between variants of the mitochondrial genes and PD. The Parkinson's Disease Research Agenda states that â€Å"mitochondrial dysfunction has numerous consequences, including energetic failure, generation of reactive oxygen species, disregulation of calcium homeostasis and induction of apoptosis, each of which may be important in Parkinson's disease†3. 3. High concentrations of free-radicals in the body and a lack of antioxidants. Free radicals damage cells and if too many dopamine-producing cells were damaged then this could lead to PD. Antioxidants prevent the production of free radicals and repair damage done by them. Symptoms and effects There is no easy test to diagnose PD, so it is diagnosed by ruling out other diseases and looking for the classic symptoms: * Slowness of movement (bradykinesia)1. It will become more of an effort to walk or get out bed. People may just think they are getting old and it is not till other symptoms develop that you may think about PD. * Stiffness of muscles (rigidity) and muscles may feel tenser. Also, your arms do not tend to swing as much when you walk. * Shaking (tremor) is common, but does not always occur. It normally affects the fingers, thumbs, hands, and arms, but can affect other parts of the body. It is most noticeable when you are resting and may become worse when you are anxious or emotional. It's generally less obvious when you use your hand to do something such as picking up an object or writing. Symptoms will tend to get worse and worse and as the disease develops. Some other symptoms may develop due to problems with the way affected brain cells and nerves control the muscles. These include: * Fewer facial expressions such as smiling or frowning. Less blinking. * Difficulty with fine movements such as tying shoe laces or buttoning shirts. * Difficulty with writing (handwriting tends to become smaller), balance and posture and swallowing. * Speech may become slow and monotonous. * Tiredness aches and pains. As PD gets really bad, symptoms such as the following might develop, dependant on the individual: * Constipation- †PD prevents the proper transmission of the neurological messages that tell the rectal sphincter muscles to open†7 * Hallucinations (seeing, hearing or smelling things that are not real) * Sweating- PD can affect the autonomic nervous system8 that controls the autonomic functions (functions done automatically by the brain and body without conscious thought) such as sweating, breathing etc. * Difficulties with sleeping * Weight loss- there is a generally decreased appetite associated with PD. This may largely be due to swallowing difficulties and other gastrointestinal disturbances8 * Pain * Depression & Anxiety- anxiety disorders occur in up to 40% of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD)9. The article states †Current evidence suggests that anxiety may not be a psychological reaction to the illness but rather may be linked to specific neurobiological processes accompanying PD.† * Problems with controlling impulses (for example compulsive eating, shopping or gambling) Most people will only suffer form a few of these symptoms and which ones will get worse and the speed at which they get worse varies hugely from person to person. Some rare brain diseases can have very similar symptoms in which case a specialist brain scan can often be used to distinguish between them. The Treatments At the moment there is no cure for PD and most treatments simply have the job of relieving symptoms. 1. Drugs Intro: there are two main types of drug used in PD treatment. Firstly, drugs that target the neurotransmitter systems (e.g. dopamine) or secondly drugs that are designed to interfere with steps in the neurodegenerative processes (they may aim to sustain nerve cells or tackle the issue of free radicals). Drugs are cheap and effective, especially in relieving symptoms but show little potential as a full cure to the disease. Most also need to be taken daily for the remainder of a patients lifetime. Many drugs may have minor side affects. Some side affects have social impacts such as mood swings or may not allow the user to fly or travel to certain places. Dopaminergic Agents- use to activate the production or use of Dopamine. Levodopa- is an amino acid that is converted in the brain into dopamine. According to the WE MOVE website10 ‘Levodopa was introduced as a PD therapy in the 1960s, and remains the most effective therapy for motor symptoms' although there are many drugs that do a similar job such as Rasagiline. It reduces the effect of and helps control the symptoms of PD. Like most amino acids levodopa is absorbed into the blood stream through the wall of the intestines. Amino acids require a ‘transporter' to transfer them across the membrane of the intestines and into the blood stream. These transporters can only work at a certain rate and so diet is important. To much dietary protein can slow the transport of levodopa into the blood stream meaning the dose may be ineffective. Alternatively to avoid the competition with other amino acids, doses should be taken between meals. Levodopa has to cross from the blood stream into the brain using the same transport system again, making diet and timing doubly important. MAO-B Inhibitors- slow the breakdown of dopamine in the brain and aim to prevent or slow the death of neurons. ‘MAO is responsible for the mitochondrial metabolism of monoamine neurotransmitters, including dopamine and serotonin.'11 Ethical implications Some of the many ethical issues revolve around the decision to move from testing on artificial tissue (often grown from stem cells, which may in the future replace animal testing altogether. Stem cells, however create there own ethical issues) to animals, and further on the line, of animal testing to trails on human patients. The graph below shows the stages involved in developing a new drug and is taken from the MSD website (21/3/10): (http://www.msd.com.hk/health_info/drug_education/e_ddp_introduction.html) Animal testing is very closely regulated in the UK however many, often false, accusations of animal abuse have lead to darkened perceptions of animal testing in the public eye. Animal abuse is definitely a reality but ‘improved transparency, accountability and regulations'12 should reduce it happening and make sure those responsible are prosecuted. Unlike humans, animals are unable to consent to testing. It is forced upon them and often involves a certain amount of pain, stress, suffering and discomfort. Researchers will try to reduce this, possibly using anaesthetics although this can often interfere with the drug being tested so the animal may have to suffer the full amount of pain. Unfortunately, in PD, a number of animals are tested on normally starting with mice or rats before moving on to monkeys and finally human trails. Some people believe that animals like monkeys and most primates shouldn't be experimented upon as they aren't in the same plentiful supply that rats and mice are in, nor are they considered pests. However, for potentially dangerous drugs it is essential animals with a similar genetic make up (primates) are tested on to greatly reduce the risks in human clinical trails. Economics of drugs in PD As shown in figure 1.2 drug development requires a huge amount of research and testing and can take more than 10 years before a useable drug is created. This obviously requires a huge amount of investment and general drug development costs vary between 500 and 2,000 million dollars. R;D is often done by independent companies or government organizations. Most companies or organizations will link with universities to share information and facilities and hopefully quicken to process of discovering a new drug. ‘After approval, pharmaceutical companies have a short period of exclusivity before patents expire and other companies can market the same drugs as generics. This time is used to recoup the massive investment required to develop and launch a new drug. However, the companies must also continue to test their drugs and monitor the feedback from healthcare professionals in order to identify undiscovered side effects, risk factors and interactions.'13 Drug companies are some of the most profitable industries in the world and although a large amount of money is needed in research and development (R;D) only 1 in 5 dollars made is then invested in further research. Many companies spent nearly twice as much money on advertising and marketing than R;D and demand is so much higher than it needs to be that companies can afford to boost prices to maximise profit. Luckily with PD this becomes less of a problem as people are unlikely take and therefore buy drugs that are meant for PD when they don't actually need it. This is because the symptoms tend to be quite clear and drugs like levodopa are not readily available unless prescribed. Benefits to humans Drugs can have a massive impact on people suffering from PD and they aim to do a number of things: 1) Improve standards of living- by reducing the affects of PD and slowing the process of neurodegeneration it should allow the person suffering to do basic things (such as tying shoelaces, writing etc) more easily and for longer before they require full time medical care. This allows them to be more independent. 2) The use of drugs such as levodopa, in the long term, will reduce the affects of symptoms such as tiredness, aches and pains. Painkillers like amantadine will also be used for more short term relieve along side drugs like levodopa. This will simply make life less painful for a PD patient. 3) Drugs are the most well know and reliable of PD treatments. This reduces the risks of any unknowns or mistakes and far fewer mistakes will be made than in using other treatments. Risks to humans 1) Unfortunately Nausea and vomiting are common side effects of using levodopa that are due to the building up of dopamine in the bloodstream. The most serious and severe effect of this treatment is dyskinesias. ‘Dyskinesias are uncontrolled movements, including writhing, twitching, and shaking. Dyskinesias result from the combination of long-term levodopa use and continued neurodegeneration. They typically begin to develop in milder forms after 3 to 5 years of treatment, but are more severe after 5 to 10 years of treatment.'10 2) There is always risk of allergies when using drugs and for some unfortunate people drugs may do more damage than good. 3) Side affects of drugs vary from person to person and it is impossible to know beforehand how a certain drug will affect an individual. For some, side affects may be far worse than for others. 4) Dosages need to be got right and it is a common problem that people take to little and don't get the full benefit of the drug or take to much and suffer more/worse side affects. A massive overdose will likely lead to death. Alternative Cures? 2. Gene therapy- is still in early research stages and it is likely to be a while before this technique is actually used on humans. Like stem cells it has exciting potential to provide a future cure and avoid the ethical issues associated with stem cells. How it works? Gene therapy aims to introduce new and functioning genetic material into cells that have abnormal genes that are causing proteins (in the case of PD, dopamine) not to be created or created faulty. The genetic material can normally be inserted into the cells using viruses. ‘Some types of virus, such as retroviruses, integrate their genetic material (including the new gene) into a chromosome in the human cell. Other viruses, such as adenoviruses, introduce their DNA into the nucleus of the cell, but the DNA is not integrated into a chromosome.'13There is still much development needed as scientists are still unable to target specific cells and there is the potential threat of virus mutation which may cause even further problems. There is also major worry about the potential for gene therapy to be used to improve basic human traits such as height, intelligence etc. People could simply choice characteristics and this in many people's eyes could be used for the wrong reason. For example, this may be used to give some athletes a major advantage over others or possibly creating super humans. 3. Stem Cells I think stem cells have shown exciting potential and will hopefully provide a full time future cure for the disease. How they work? Stem cells are unspecialised cells that have the ability to develop into highly specialised cells like nerve cells. They can also self-renew, which means they are capable of replenishing themselves for long periods of time by dividing4. For Parkinson's disease it is hoped that large numbers of the brain cells that produce dopamine can be produced and inserted, through transplantation, into a patient's brain. Therefore, nerve messages to all parts of the body will be normal again. However, stem cells not been successfully used to cure PD yet and there are many problems facing researchers. Therefore stem cells are relatively useless for PD at the moment but may be able to provide an easy and affective cure in the future. Problems with the types of Stem cells There are three main types of stem cells: 1. Adult stem cells can come from Skin, Bone marrow, Brain, Blood vessels, Liver and Skeletal muscle. However, adult stem cells are found in such small quantities it is difficult to identify and isolate them in viable numbers. Because adult stem cells aren't as ‘young' as embryonic stem cells, they contain more DNA abnormalities acquired with age4. These can be caused by the environment, toxins or errors in DNA replication. Adult stem cells have limited potential because unlike embryonic stem cells they can not differentiate into any specialised cell in the body. 2. Cord blood cells are normally found in the umbilical cord and placenta after the cord is cut. One problem is the lack of cells obtained and these may not be enough relative to a patient's size. Cord blood cells generally take longer to grow, therefore completion of therapy will take longer. It obviously requires a pregnant woman to donate the cells. 3. Embryonic stem cells are found in human embryos and have a seemingly unlimited potential to develop into any cell in the human body. However they are surrounded by a number of ethical issues. Many people and especially religious group condemn the use of embryonic stem cells as they believe it is destroying a life. They believe it is immoral to save a life at the expense of another. However new developments in stem cells research means that Totipotent* stem cells can now be collected without the loss of embryo life: Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) – nucleus is removed from a somatic cell and is then implanted into a donor egg that has had its nucleus removed6. It divides just as normal before forming an embryo. Cells from the inner cell mass are extracted and cultured to provide embryonic stem cells but the technique destroys the embryo. Although the embryo is destroyed it is a created clone and so may not be considered the loss of new, individual life. Altered nuclear transfer (ANT), however, prevents an embryo from actually being created. The nucleus of the somatic cell is altered, or genetically reprogrammed, before being transferred into the egg. The alteration consequence is that the somatic cell DNA still produces stem cells but does not generate an embryo. Blastomere Extraction is performed on a two-day old embryo, following the division of the fertilized egg into eight blastomeres (cells). One blastomere is removed and can be triggered to divide and the resulting stem cells could still be used for research and disease treatment. The embryo, ‘now with only seven blastomeres can still be implanted into the mother and assuming no defect has been found these embryos will still grow into healthy babies'4. 1. Name of article: Parkinson's Disease Url: http://www.patient.co.uk/health/Parkinson's-Disease.htm Date accessed: 15/2/10 Evaluation: The article is certified as a reliable source of health and social care information. It certificate states- ‘The authors and editors of this article are employed to create accurate and up to date content reflecting reliable research evidence, guidance and best clinical practice. They are free from any commercial conflicts of interest.' The article states that Parkinson's disease affects the part of the brain know as the substantia nigra. WE MOVE (Worldwide Education and Awareness for Movement Disorders- http://www.wemove.org/par/par_subn.html) states: ‘In PD, cells of the SN (substantia nigra) degenerate, and therefore can no longer produce adequate dopamine.' This information is further backed up on the Parkinson's Disease Research Agenda that states ‘cells that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine die in a small brain area called the substantia nigra.' As the information provided is backed by what I consider to be reliable resources I think that the i nformation on the website is also therefore reliable, but should be checked with other sources before being used. 2. Name of article: Possible Causes of Parkinson's Disease (PD) Url: http://www.healthtree.com/articles/parkinsons-disease/causes.php Date accessed: 20/2/10 3. Name: Parkinson's Disease Research Agenda URL: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/about_ninds/plans/nihparkinsons_agenda.htm#Parkinson Date accessed: 20/2/10 Evaluation: Parkinson's disease Research Agenda is written by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). It primary aim is to †reduce the burden of neurological disease – a burden borne by every age group, by every segment of society, by people all over the world.† It is funded by the government so should provide no bias and the site aims to educate people about various neurological disorders including Parkinson's disease. It states â€Å"mitochondrial dysfunction has numerous consequences†¦ each of which may be important in Parkinson's disease.† This is also backed by an article: http://www.nature.com/nrneurol/journal/v6/n2/full/nrneurol.2009.221.html that states † dysfunctional energy metabolism might be a central element of the pathological process underlying the development of PD.† The site was last updated on the 25th of July 2008. As the site is run and updated by the government with no other purpose but to inform I think it can be used a very reliable source of information.